1.What is endocrine
2.what is exocrine?
3.Describe circle of wills
4.What are the blood supply to Medulla
5.Discuss blood supply midbrain.
6.What are the Blood supply to pon.
7.Discuss blood suppy in thorax,head,neck.
8.Explain venous drainage in Brain.
9.Why Alcohol drinker ends with Hypoglycemia?
AA10.Explain blood supply to the pelvis.
11.Explain Blood supply to the Thigh.
12.Explain the function of Growth hormone.
13.Explain the five hormone secreted by pituitary Gland.
14.What is the relationship between parathomone and vitamin D.
15.Discuss the process of Urine formation.23
16.Explain How Nephrone perform its work.
17.What are the hormones secreted by anterior pituitary gland.
18.What are the hormones secreted by posterior pituitary Gland.
19.Why thyroxine many times changes into Triiodothyronin.
20.What are the function of stomach.
21.Describe digestive system in the small intestine.
22.Describe digestive system in the stomach.
23.Mention Three types of cell responsibe for Hormones production.
24.Mention three type cell in pancrease and their Hormone secreated.
25. Describe the blood supply of the brain (circle of Willis)
26. Describe the structure of the adrenal gland explain the functions of the hormones secreted by adrenal gland
27.Describe hormonal control of Glucose metabolism.
28.Describe hormonal control of protein metabolism.
29.Describe Glucose metabolism.
30.Describe protein and lipid metabolism.
31.Mention the hormones produced by the pituitary gland.
32.List the Hormones produced by the islet pancrease and the hormones produced by thyroid Gland.
33.Mention accessory organ and Accessory Gland of male reproductive organ.
34.What is the control mechanism of hormone produced by pituitary gland.
35.What are hormones secreted by endocrine pancreas, explain the function of insulin.
36.Explain the structure of the Thyroid Gland, explain production and functions of thyroid forming.
37.Define endocrine Gland what are the major endocrine glands of the body list the hormones secreted by the pituitary gland explain the function of the growth hormone.
40.Explain secondaly male and female characteristics at puberty which hormone influence these characteristics changes.
41.Describe the structure and functions of uterus what are the hormone changes during endomentrial cycle.
42.Describe the body reactions that occur during the fight or flight responses.
43 Case history: Jacqueline hates her new student ID photo. Her hair looks dry, the extra weight she has gained is obvious, and her neck looks fat. In fact, there is an odd butterfly-shaped swelling across the front of her neck, under her chin.
Jacqueline has also be feeling very tired and mentally “dull” lately. Jacqueline goes to the hospital and blood is drawn for investigation. The results show that her T4 levels are low and her TSH levels are low too. Later she is given a TSH stimulation test in which TSH is injected and the T4 levels are monitored. After TSH injection, her T4 levels rise.
Q.2. From the scenario above: Does Jacqueline have problems with her pituitary gland or with her thyroid gland? How did you come to your conclusion? Explain
44. What factors stimulate ACTH secretion? Mention two only.
45. What stimulates release of ADH? List three factors.
46. There are four main types of cells in the pancreatic islets. Mention the names of these cells and the hormones they produce
47. The adrenal cortex is divided into three zones, or layers. Give the names of the three zones and their corresponding hormones.
48. The following questions define the rennin-angiotensin-aldosterone system (RAAS)
(a) Where is renin produced?
(b)What does renin do?
(c) What does angiotensin-converting enzyme do?
(d) What are the effects of angiotensin II?
49. List three organs or tissues that are not exclusively classified as endocrine glands but contain cells that secrete hormones.
50. How are blood levels of glucagon and insulin controlled?
51. How is TSH regulated?
52. Tropic hormones are hormones produced by the anterior pituitary that target other endocrine glands. Name the four principal tropic hormones.
53. The anterior pituitary is also known as the _______________ and the other name for the posterior pituitary is ___________________
54. List six (6) important hormones that are secreted by the hypothalamus into the hypophyseal portal system .
55. The hypophyseal portal system carries blood from the _________________directly to the_______ ______________where the target cells of the releasing hormones are located.
56. Endocrine glands are also known as ductless glands. Why?
57. What is a hormone?
58. List the hormones secreted by adrenal gland (adrenal medulla) and adrenal context. Explain the functions of these hormone.
59. List 8 major endocrine glands
60. Write short notes on the hormonal roles of the pancreas in relation to diabetes.
DISCUSSION QUESTION.
1. Define physiology
2. Mention importance of physiology
3. Explain levels of organization in the body
4. Define homeostasis
5. Briefly explain homeostatic control systems
6. Define feedback mechanism
7. Define negative feedback loops
8. Define positive feedback loops
9. Define feed forward mechanisms
10. Outline functions of the blood
11. Mention constituents of plasma
12. Mention functions of plasma
13. Explain different types of blood groups
14. Briefly explain production of red blood cells(erythrocytes)
15. Outline functions of red blood cells
16. Briefly explain production of white blood cells(leucocytes)
17. Mention white blood cells differentials and state functions for each
18. Mention clinical importance of white blood cells differentials
19. Mention function of white blood cells
20. Mention function of platelets
21. Mention functions of a spleen
22. Briefly explain body fluid compartments
23. Outline 5 constituents of body fluid compartments
24. Mention 5 differences between icf and ecf
25. Mention the constituent of lymph of the lymphatic system
26. Describe the draining system
27. Mention the functions of the lymphatic system
28. Explain the conduction system of the heart
29. Explain the pulmonary circulation
30. Write short notes of the circle of wills
31. Explain on foetal circulation
32. Mention components of the respiratory tract
33. And in each component outline its functions
34. briefly explain respiratory process
35. Mention and define the type of cellular respiration
36. Outline the constituents of saliva
37. Mention functions of saliva
38. Outline constituents of gastric juice
39. Mention functions of gastric juice
40. Write short notes gastric enzymes
41. Outline constituents of small intestine enzymes
42. Mention functions of small intestine enzymes
43. Outline the functions of the liver
44. Explain the metabolism of bilirubin
45. Explain the production of pancreatic secretions
46. Outline functions of pancreatic secretions
47. Define endocrinology
48. Mention the importance of endocrine system
49. Explain regulation of hormone production in the body
50. Functions of hypothalamus
1. Mention four (4) functions of serum proteins
Answer
• Transportation of lipids, vitamins etc
• Immune system – antibodies
• Act as enzymes
• Hemostasis – blood clotting
• Regulation of blood pressure (Oncotic pressure)
2. Name three (3) major electrolytes in the extracellular fluid compartment
Answer
• Sodium
• Calcium
• Chloride
• Bicarbonate
3. Mention four (4) functions of the kidney
Answer
• Excretion of metabolic waste products and foreign chemicals
• Regulation of water and electrolytes balance
• Regulation of body fluid osmolarity and electrolyte concentration
• Regulation of arterial blood pressure
• Regulation oof acid – base balance
• Secretion, metabolism and excretion of hormones
• Gluconeogenesis
4. What is the function of Kidney in glucose metabolism?
Answer
• Kidney synthesize glucose from amino acids and other precursor (i.e Gluconeogenesis)
5. Define the term “micturition”
Answer
• Micturition is the process by which the urinary bladder empties when it become filled
6. State two (2) major functions of Vitamin B12
Answer
• Promotion of growth
• Promotion of Red blood cell formation and maturation
7. Name four (4) Vitamin K – dependent clotting factors
Answer
• Factor II (Prothrombin)
• Factor VII
• Factor IX
• Factor X
8. Name the basic function of Vitamin A
Answer
• Formation of visual pigments
9. Enumerate two (2) importance of cholesterol in the body
Answer
• Component of cell membranes
• Precursor in the synthesis of steroid hormones, bile acids and Vitamin D
10. Mention type of antibody against Red blood cells present in each of the following blood group
a) Group A
b) Group B
c) Group O
Answer
a) Antibody against B antigen
b) Antibody against A antigen
c) Antibodies against A and B antigens
11. State the Starling forces which determine filtration across the capillary membrane
Answer
• Blood hydrostatic pressure
• Blood osmotic (Oncotic) pressure
• Interstitial hydrostatic pressure
• Interstitial osmotic (Oncotic) pressure
12. What is the function of Adrenocorticotrophic hormone (ACTH)?
Answer
• ACTH stimulate secretion of glucocorticoids steroid hormones from adrenal cortex cells
13. Name any four (4) transcellular fluids
Answer
• Cerebrospinal fluids
• Mucus
• Synovial fluid
• Vitreous humor
• Aqueous humor
• Pleural fluid
• Peritoneal fluid
14. Mention four (4) functions of epithelial tissues
Answer
• Protection of underlying tissues
• Absorption
• Secretion
• Reception of sensory stimuli
15. Name five (5) hormones secreted from the hypothalamus
Answer
• Thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH)
• Gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH)
• Growth hormone releasing hormone (GHRH)
• Corticotropin releasing hormone (CRH)
• Somatostatin
• Dopamine
16. What will be the result of excessive activity of Parathyroid gland?
Answer
• Rapid absorption of calcium salt from bones
• Hypercalcemia results in the extracellular fluid compartment
17. Mention three (3) types of Lipoproteins
Answer
• Very low density lipoprotein
• Low density lipoprotein
• High density lipoprotein
18. State three (3) metabolic effects of Insulin
Answer
• Stimulate glucose uptake by muscles and connective tissues
• Increase conversion of glucose to glycogen
• Prevent breakdown of protein and fats
• Decrease Glycogenolysis
19. Mention two (2) hormone from the anterior Pituitary which target direct the Gonads
Answer
• Follicle stimulating hormone
• Lutenizing hormone
20. Name the three (3) steps in urine formation
Answer
• Filtration
• Reabsorption
• Secretion
21. State three (3) functions of lymph
Answer
• Remove metabolic waste from the tissue cells
• Maintain the composition of tissue fluid
• Absorb fats from the small intestine through lymphatic vessels
• Act against the pathogenic infections of microbes
• Supply nutrients to the body
22. Mention three (3) function of the nose in respiration
Answer
• Warm air
• Humidify air
• Filter air
23. What are the two (2) important components in calculation of Cardiac output?
Answer
• Stroke volume
• Heart rate
24. Enumerate four (4) functions of hepatocytes
Answer
• Bile production
• Storage
• Detoxification
• Phagocytosis
• Synthesis of blood components
25. Mention five (5) components of heart conduction system
Answer
• Sinoatrial node
• Atrioventricular node
• Bundle of His
• Bundle branches
• Purkinje fibres
26. State the function of each of the following;
a) Intrinsic factor
b) Pepsin
c) Gastric mucus
Answer
a) Intrinsic factor combines with Vitamin B12 and makes it absorbable
b) Pepsin breakdown protein into peptides
c) Gastric mucus lubricate food and act as protective barrier of the lining epithelium
27. Mention three (3) functions of Hydrochloric acid produced from the Parietal cells
Answer
• Convert Pepsinogen to Pepsin
• Destroy some bacterial and microbes
• Provide optimal PH environment for Pepsin
• Stimulate the small intestine to release Secretin and CCK
28. Mention three (3) major features which increase the absorptive surface of the small intestine
Answer
• Presence of mucosal folds
• Presence of villi
• Luminal plasma membrane has microvilli
29. State the process of starch and lipid digestion in the oral cavity of human being.
Answer
• Starch will be converted to sugar by Salivary amylase
• Lipid will not be changed as Lingual lipase is inactive
30. Name three (3) end products of carbohydrate digestion which can easily be absorbed
Answer
• Glucose
• Fructose
• Galactose
31. State function of each of the following enzymes;
a) Pancreatic amylase
b) Pancreatic lipase
c) Nuclease
Answer
a) Pancreatic amylase breakdown starch into simple sugar
b) Pancreatic lipase breakdown fats into fatty acids and glycerol
c) Nuclease breakdown nucleic acids into nucleotide
32. Name three (3) groups of hormones according to chemical nature
Answer
• Steroid hormones
• Peptide hormones
• Amine hormones
33. Name three (3) functions of lymph nodes
Answer
• Filtration
• Phagocytosis
• Haematopoiesis
34. Differentiate between Tidal volume and Residual volume
Answer
• Tidal volume is the volume of air inspired of expired with each normal breath
• WHILE Residual volume is the volume of air remaining in the lungs after the most forceful expiration
35. Mention four (4) pulmonary capacities used in Physiology
Answer
• Inspiratory capacity
• Functional residual capacity
• Vital capacity
• Total lung capacity
36. Mention two (2) hormones stored in the posterior lobe of the Pituitary gland
Answer
• Oxytocin
• Antidiuretic (Vasopressin) hormone
37. Name four (4) major types of tissue in human body
Answer
• Epithelial tissue
• Muscular tissue
• Connective tissue
• Nervous tissue
38. Define the term “Gluconeogenesis”
Answer
• Gluconeogenesis is the formation of carbohydrates (glucose) from proteins and fats
39. What are the end product of glycolysis in the following situation;
a) Aerobic respiration
b) Anaerobic respiration
Answer
a) Aerobic respiration: Pyruvic acid
b) Anaerobic respiration: Lactic acid
40. What is the meaning of “Pleural effusion”?
Answer
• Pleural effusion is the accumulation of fluid in the pleural space
41. Lipids include several types of chemical compounds. Mention three (3)
Answer
• Neutral fat
• Phospholipids
• Cholesterol
42. State the function of erythropoietin hormone
Answer
• Erythropoietin hormone stimulate the production of red blood cells
43. Mention four (4) major electrolytes in the Intracellular fluid compartment
Answer
• Potassium
• Magnesium
• Phosphate
• Protein
44. Name two (2) important vitamins during formation and maturation of Red blood cells
Answer
• Vitamin B9 (Folate)
• Vitamin B12
45. Mention four (4) fat soluble vitamins
Answer
• Vitamin A
• Vitamin D
• Vitamin E
• Vitamin K
46. Name two (2) major periods/phases of cardiac cycle
Answer
• Diastole
• Systole
47. Mention two major hormones involved in Calcium regulation
Answer
• Parathyroid hormone
• Active Vitamin D
48. State how “Pancreas is both exocrine and endocrine gland”
Answer
• Pancreas is exocrine because it has duct draining pancreatic juice in the intestine
• Pancreas is endocrine because it secretes hormones like Insulin direct into the blood stream
49. Enumerate three (3) fun ctions of Oxytocin hormone
Answer
• Milk ejection in lactating mothers
• Uterine contractions like during labour
• Reduces excretion of urine (Antidiuretic effect)
50. Mention four (4) physiological effects of Thyroxine hormone on Cardiovascular system
Answer
• Increase blood flow to the body tissue
• Increase cardiac output
• Increase heart rate
• Increase heart strength
51. Define the following terms
a) Gluconeogenesis
b) Glycogenolysis
c) Glycolysis
Answer
a) Gluconeogenesis-Biosynthesis of new glucose from non carbohydrate sources
b) Glycogenolysis- Breakdown of Glycogen into Glucose
c) Glycolysis- Glycolysis is the sequence of reactions that converts glucose into pyruvate with the concomitant production of a relatively small amount of ATP.
- Breakdown of glucose into Pyruvate and Energy in form of ATP
52. Mention four (4) end products of glucose metabolism
Answer
• Adenosine triphosphate (ATP)
• Reduced Flavin adenine dinucleotide (FADH)
• Reduced Nicotine amide adenine dinucleotide (NADH)
• Carbondioxide (CO2)
• Guanosine triphosphate (GTP)
53. Describe four chambers of the heart
i. The right atrium receives venous blood from the body through inferior and superior vena cava, then pumps it the right ventricle
ii. The left atrium receive oxygenated blood from pulmonary veins and pumps it to the left ventricle
iii. The right ventricle pump blood to the lungs
iv. The left ventricle pump blood through aorta to the rest of the body
54. Explain function of the heart valves
Are mechanical devices that permit the flow of blood in one direction only
55. Mention two main process involved in respiration
i. Breathing (pulmonary ventilation)
ii. Exchange of gases in the lungs
56. Mention at list four component of lung volume
i. Tidal volume
ii. Vital capacity
iii. Functional residual capacity
iv. Residual volume
v. Total lung capacity
vi. Inspiratory Reserve Volume
vii. Expiratory Reserve Volume
viii. Forced Expiratory Volume
57. Describe anatomic dead space
These are first 16 generation plus trachea and upper respiratory tract that are involved only in conducting air while not involved in gaseous exchange
58. List Factors affecting the affinity of hemoglobin for oxygen
pH
Temperature
Concentration of 2,3-biphosphoglycerate
59. Describe three mechanism of transportation of carbon dioxide
i. As bicarbonate ions (HC03-) in the plasma (70%)
ii. Some is carried in erythrocytes, loosely combined with haemoglobin as carbaminohaemoglobin (23 %)
iii. Some is dissolved in the plasma (7%)
60. List down at least four Function of Hepatocytes
i. Hepatocytes have six major functions, which are:
ii. Bile production
iii. Storage
iv. Interconversion of nutrients
v. Detoxication
vi. Phargocytosis
vii. Synthesis of blood components
61. What is the Function of gallbladder
It stores and concentrates the bile which is secreted by the liver
62. List down at least four Composition of Bile
i. Water constitute 97.0%, in the gall bladder the amount is reduced 5 folds
ii. Bile pigments 0.2%
iii. Cholesterol0.06%
iv. Inorganic salts 0.7% such as Na+, K+& Ca2+ salts Cl- HCO3- & Phosphorus
v. Fatty acids 0.15%
vi. Lecithin 0.1%
vii. Fat 0.1%
viii. Alkaline phosphatase
ix. Proteins
63. What are the role of hydrochloric as digestion is concern
i. Decreases the pH of chyme for activation and optimum function of pepsin other functions include
ii. It activates the enzymes pepsin and lingual lipase
iii. It breaks up connective tissue and plant cell walls, helping to liquefy food and form chyme
iv. It converts ingested ferric ions (Fe3+) to ferrous Fe2+ form of iron that can be absorbed and used for haemoglobin synthesis
v. It contributes to nonspecific disease resistance by destroying ingested bacteria and other pathogens
64. What is the function of Intrinsic factor
Protects vitamin B12 and later facilitates its absorption
65. Define Glycogenesis
Is the process of glycogen formation which takes place in the liver
66. Define Glycogenolysis
Is the breakdown of glycogen to glucose
67. Mention at least 4 hormones involved in the carbohydrate metabolism
i. Insulin
ii. Glucagon
iii. Glucocorticoids
iv. Thyroid
v. Growth hormone
vi. Catecholamine
68. List down function of kidney
i. Filtering of blood
ii. Regulation of blood pressure
iii. Regulation of blood volume
iv. Regulation of the plasma electrolytes
v. Regulation of the pH of the blood
vi. Synthesis of Vitamin D
vii. Production of Red blood cells
69. Mention two parts of nephron
Renal corpuscle
Tubules
70. Mention three stapes of urine formation
i. Filtration
ii. Reabsorption
iii. Secretion
71. Mention any five endocrine gland
i. Pituitary gland
ii. Hypothalamus
iii. Thyroid gland
iv. Adrenal glands
v. Parathyroid gland
vi. Gonads
vii. Pancreatic islets
viii. Heart
ix. Kidney
x. Liver
72. List down function of endocrine hormone
Stimulation or inhibition of growth
Mood swings
Induction or suppression of apoptosis (programmed cell death)
Activation or inhibition of the immune system
Regulation of metabolism
Preparation of the body for mating, fighting, fleeing, and other activity
Preparation of the body for a new phase of life, such as puberty, parenting, and menopause
Control of the reproductive cycle
Hunger cravings
73. Explain positive feedback mechanism
The hormone's effect makes a gland produce more hormones
74. Explain negative feedback mechanism
The hormone's effect makes a gland stop making hormones
75. Give example of positive feedback mechanism
Production of oxytocin
76. List down example of anabolism hormone
Growth hormone
Insulin-like growth factor 1 and others
Insulin
Testosterone
Estradi
77. List down example of sex steroid hormone
Androgens
Estrogens, estradiol, estrone ,estriol
Progestagens, progesterone
78. Mention hormone produced by anterior Pituitary Hormones
Thyroid stimulating hormone
Adrenocorticotrophic hormone (ACTH)
Growth hormone
Follicle stimulating hormones (FSH) stimulates
Luteinizing hormone (LH) stimulates
Prolactin
79. Mention hormone produced by posterior Pituitary Hormones
Anti-diuretic hormone (Vasopressin)
Oxytocin
80. Mention layers of adrenal cortex
Glomerulosa
Fasciculata
Reticularis
81. Mention hormone produced by adrenal cortex
Glucocorticoids
Mineralocorticoids
Sex hormones (androgens)
82. Mention hormone produced by adrenal medulla
Adrenaline (epinephrine)
Noradrenaline (norepinephrine)
83. What is the Function of Adrenal Medulla
Increasing heart rate.
Increasing blood pressure.
Diverting blood to essential organs including the heart, brain and skeletal muscles by dilating their blood vessels and constricting those of less essential organs, such as the skin.
Increasing metabolic rate.
Dilating the pupils
84. What is the Metabolic effect of glucocorticoids
Gluconeogenesis
Lipolysis
Stimulating breakdown of protein, releasing amino acids
Anti-inflammatory actions
Suppression of immune responses
Delayed wound healing
Promoting absorption of sodium and water from renal tubules
85. What is the function of Aldosterone
It stimulates the reabsorption of sodium by the renal tubules
Enhance excretion of potassium (K+) in the urine
Facilitate water retention through reabsorption of sodium
86. Mention three main types of cells in the pancreatic islets
α (alpha) cells, which secrete glucagon
β (beta) cells, which secrete insulin
Δ (delta) cells, which secrete somatostatin
87. What are Effect of prostaglandin
Facilitate inflammatory response
Potentiating pain
Regulating blood pressure
Blood clotting
Uterine contraction during labour
Cause constriction or dilation in vascular smooth muscle cells
Cause aggregation or disaggregation of platelets
Sensitize spinal neurons to pain
Decrease intraocular pressure
Regulate inflammatory mediation
Regulate calcium movement
Control hormone regulation
Control cell growth
Acts on thermoregulatory center of hypothalamus to produce fever
88. What is the effect of insulin
Acting on cell membranes and stimulating uptake and use of glucose by muscle and connective tissue cells.
Increasing conversion of glucose to glycogen (glycogenesis), especially in the liver and skeletal muscles.
Accelerating uptake of amino acids by cells, and the synthesis of protein.
Promoting synthesis of fatty acids and storage of fat in adipose tissue (lipogenesis).
Decreasing glycogenolysis (breakdown of glycogen, into glucose).
Preventing the breakdown of protein and fat, and gluconeogenesis
89. What ere the functions of thyroid hormone
They increase the basal metabolic rate and heat production.
Regulating metabolism of carbohydrates, proteins and fats.
T3 and T4 are essential for normal growth and development, especially of the skeleton and nervous system
90. What are the Function of Calcitonin
It acts on bone and the kidneys to reduce the blood calcium (Ca2+) level when it is raised.
It reduces the reabsorption of calcium from bones and inhibits reabsorption of calcium by the renal tubules.
Its effect is opposite to that of parathyroid hormone, the hormone secreted by the parathyroid glands.
Release of calcitonin is stimulated by an increase in the blood calcium level.
This hormone is important during childhood when bones undergo considerable changes in size and shape
91. What are the features of Hyperthyroidism
Palpitations
Tremor
Anxiety symptoms
Diarrhea
Weight loss
Heat intolerance
92. What are Functions of the Parathyroid Gland
Regulation of serum calcium.
93. Which blood group is universal donor
Blood group O
94. Which blood group is universal recipient
Blood group AB
95. What is the function of blood
Supply of oxygen to tissues (bound to haemoglobin which is carried in red cells
Supply of nutrients such as glucose, amino acids and fatty acids (dissolved in the blood or bound to plasma proteins (e.g. blood lipids)
Removal of waste such as carbon dioxide, urea and lactic acid
Immunological functions, including circulation of white cells, and detection of foreign material by antibodies
Coagulation, which is one part of the body's self-repair mechanism
Messenger functions, including the transport of hormones and the signalling of tissue damage
Regulation of body pH (the normal pH of blood is in the range of 7.35 - 7.45)
Regulation of core body temperature
96. What is the composition of blood
Plasma
Formed elements
i. Erythrocytes (red blood cells)
ii. Leukocytes (white blood cells)
iii. Thrombocytes (platelets)
97. List down characteristics of life
Organization
Metabolism
Responsiveness
Growth
Reproduction
Respiration
Excretion
Circulation
98. List down Mechanism that Maintain Homeostasis of Body Fluid
Neural mechanism
Renin-angiotensin-aldosterone mechanism
Atrial natriuretic hormone (ANH) mechanism
Antidiuretic hormone (ADH) mechanism
99. What is the function of spleen
Defense
Hematopoiesis
Red blood cell and platelet destruction
Blood reservoir
100. What are Stages of Cardiac Cycle
Atrial Systole: Contraction of the atria
Ventricular Systole: Contraction of the ventricles
Complete cardiac Diastole: Relaxation of atria and ventricles
101. What are Factors affect the stroke volume
Ventricular end diastolic volume
Venous return
Strength of myocardium contraction
Blood volume
102. Define physiology
Is the scientific study of normal mechanisms, and their interactions, which operate within a living system.
103. Mention the levels of organization in the body
-Chemical and or molecular level
-Cell level
-Tissue level
-Organ level
-Organ system level
104. Define homeostasis
-Is maintenance of nearly constant conditions in the inter- nal environment.
105. Define feedback mechanism
A feedback mechanism is a process that uses the conditions of one component to regulate the function of the other.
106. Define negative feedback loops
The stimulus produces a response from the effectors that ultimately reduces the stimulus.
Example is squinting of the eyes in bright sunlight
107. Define positive feedback loops
Positive feedback loops :stimulus produces a response which increases the stimulus.
Example:Childbirth
108. Define feed forward mechanisms
some movements of the body occur so rapidly that there is not enough time for nerve signals to travel from the peripheral parts of the body all the way to the brain and then back to the periphery again to control the movement,sensory nerve signals from the moving parts apprise the brain whether the movement is performed correctly. If not, the brain corrects the feed-forward signals that it sends to the muscles the next time the movement is required
109. Outline functions of the blood
- Supply of oxygen to tissues (bound to haemoglobin which is carried in red cells)
- Supply of nutrients such as glucose, amino acids and fatty acids (dissolved in the blood or bound to plasma proteins (e.g. blood lipids)
- Removal of waste such as carbon dioxide, urea and lactic acid
- Immunological functions, including circulation of white cells, and detection of foreign material by antibodies
- Coagulation, which is one part of the body's self-repair mechanism
- Messenger functions, including the transport of hormones and the signalling of tissue damage
- regulation of body pH (the normal pH of blood is in the range of 7.35 - 7.45)
- Regulation of core body temperature
110. Mention constituents of plasma
The organic components of plasma include: proteins , lipids, carbohydrates
The main (inorganic) mineral components :
Cations : Anions :
Sodium (Na+), Chlorides(Cl⁻)
Potassium (K+), Phosphates (PO4⁻)
Calcium (Ca++), Bicarbonates(HCO3⁻)
Magnesium (Mg++)
111. Mention functions of plasma
Transportation
Regulation of oncotic pressure
Regulation of pH
Defense
Fibrinogen - Blood clotting (haemostasis)
112. Mention types of blood groups
A, O, B, AB.
113. Outline functions of red blood cells
The major function of these cells is a transport of haemoglobin, which in turn carries oxygen from lungs to the issues
114. Mention white blood cells differentials and state functions for each
Neutrophil
• Neutrophils defend against bacterial or fungal infection and other very small inflammatory processes that are usually first responders to microbial infection; their activity and death in large numbers forms pus.
Eosinophil
• Eosinophils primarily deal with parasitic infections and an increase in them may indicate such.
• They are also the predominant inflammatory cells in allergic reactions.
• Basophils are chiefly responsible for allergic and antigen response by releasing the chemical histamine causing inflammation.
Monocyte
• They have the kidney shaped nucleus and are typically agranulated.
• They also possess abundant cytoplasm.
• Monocytes share the ‘vacuum cleaner’ (phagocytosis) function of neutrophils, but are much longer lived as they have an additional role: they present pieces of pathogens to T cells so that the pathogens may be recognized again and killed, or so that an antibody response may be mounted.
Macrophage
• Once monocytes move from the bloodstream out into the body tissues, they undergo changes (differentiate) allowing phagocytosis and are then known as macrophages.
Lymphocyte
• The blood has three types of lymphocytes.
o B cells; which make antibodies that bind to pathogens to enable their destruction.
o T cells; these include CD4+ (helper) T cells co-ordinate the immune response (they are what become defective in an HIV infection).
o CD8+ (cytotoxic) are able to kill virus-infected and tumor cells.
o T cells are crucial to the immune response because they possess a unique 'memory' system which allows them to remember past invaders and prevent disease when a similar invader is encountered again.
o Natural Killer Cells (NK cells).
o Natural killer cells are able to kill cells of the body that are infected by a virus or have become cancerous.
Platelets
• They play an important role in controlling blood loss by forming platelets plugs which seal holes in small vessels.
115. Mention clinical importance of white blood cells differentials
116. Mention function of platelets
The main function of platelets is the maintenance of hemostasis.
117. Mention functions of a spleen
- Site of lymphocyte proliferation
- Immune surveillance and response
- Cleanses the blood: extracts aged and defective blood cells and platelets. Macrophages remove debris and foreign matter from blood flowing through its sinuses
118. Outline 5 constituents of body fluid compartments
i. Sodium
ii. Potassium
iii. Calcium
iv. Magnesium
v. Chloride
vi. Phophate
vii. Sulphate
viii. Glucose
ix. Amino acids
x. Fatty acids
xi. Hormones
xii. Enzymes
119. Mention 5 differences between ECF and ICF
ECF ICF
Most abundant cation - Na+,
muscle contraction
Impulse transmission
fluid and electrolyte balance
Most abundant anion - Cl-
Regulates osmotic pressure
Forms HCl in gastric acid Most abundant cation - K+
Resting membrane potential
Action potentials
Maintains intracellular volume
Regulation of pH
Anion are proteins and phosphates (HPO42-)
120. Mention the constituent of lymph of the lymphatic system
Lymph is a clear, colourless liquid with a composition similar to blood plasma. It is nothing but the clear, watery blood plasma leaked out through the capillary walls to flow around the cells. It contains oxygen, proteins, glucose and white blood cells.
121. Mention the functions of the lymphatic system
a. Transport clean fluids back to the blood
b. Drains excess fluids from tissues
c. Removes “debris” from cells of body
d. It absorbs and transports fat and fat soluble vitamins from the intestine.
e. Kill the micro-organism.
122. Mention components of the respiratory tract
- nose and nasal cavity
- pharynx
- bronchus
- alveoli
- bronchioles
- Trachea
- larynx
123. Mention and define the type of cellular respiration
124. Outline the constituents of saliva
- water, mucus, various mineral electrolytes, and digestive enzymes including amylase, which begins the breakdown of food starches.
125. Mention functions of saliva
- Bolus formation
- digestion of carbohydrates; amylase
- anti bacterial, antifungal and antiviral
- taste;gustin
- lubrication: mucin
- reminalization of teeth
126. Outline constituents of gastric juice
- Pepsin (the proteolytic enzyme),
- mucin,
- intrinsic factor,
- gastric rennin, and other gastric enzymes( lysozyme ,carbonic anhydrase ,etc
- Free hydrochloric acid, l
- actic acid and other fermenting acid, sulphates, chlorides, phosphates of sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium, bicarbonates
127. Mention functions of gastric juice
- Pepsin converts proteins into simpler, more easily absorbed substances; it is aided in this by hydrochloric acid, which provides the acid environment in which pepsin is most effective.
- Role of HCl
- – Acid sterilization
- – Activation of pepsinogen
- – Promotion of secretin secretion
- – Assisted effect of iron and calcium absorption .
- Rennin aids the digestion of milk proteins.
- Mucus secreted by the gastric glands helps protect the stomach lining from the action of gastric juice and aids in lubrication of the mucosal surface.
- Intrinsic factor is necessary for the absorption of vitamin B12
-
128. Mention gastric enzymes
- Pepsin
- Rennin
- lysozyme ,carbonic anhydrase
129. Outline constituents of intestinal juices
- It contains 98.5% water and 1.5% solids.
- Inorganic constituents
- Sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium with chloride,bicarbonate and phosphate.
- Organic constituents
- Enterokinase- activator of trypsinogen .
- Erepsin
- Nuclease, nucleotidase , nucleosidase.
- Arginase-acts on arginine producing urea and ornithine .
- Amylase , sucrase, maltase, lactase, and isomaltase .
- Also contain mucus which in combination with bicarbonates provides alkaline medium and prevents intestinal mucosa from acid.
130. Mention functions of small intestine enzymes
a. Disacccharidases (sucrase, maltase, and lactase) which break disaccharides (sucrose, maltose and lactose) down to monosaccharides (glucose, fructose & galactose)
b. Peptidases, which hydrolyse the peptide bonds between small amino acid chains
c. Nucleases, which break down nucleic acids
d. Intestinal lipase which splits fats into fatty acids and glycerol
131. Outline the functions of the hepatocytes.
- metabolic function :carbohydrate metabolism
- storage function: glycogen,copper iron
- excretion and secretion:bile
- protection:kupfer cells
- coagulative function:production of coagulation function:fibrinogen I ,prothrombin II,factor V,VII etc
132. Outline functions of pancreatic secretions
- The enzymes found in pancreatic juice break down all of the major nutrients, including carbohydrates, proteins and fats.
- Bicarbonate is useful in neutralizing the acidic gastric acid, allowing for effective enzymic action(ensuring pH Optimum)
o Proteolytic enzymes the; Trypsin, chymotrypsin and carboxypeptidase
o They are secreted in their inactive forms as trypsinogen, chymotrypsinogen, and procarboxypeptidase
If were produced in active form they would digest the tissues producing them
Within the pancreas, enzyme activation is prevented by an antiproteolytic enzyme secreted by the acinar cells
Are enzymes essential for proteins digest and polypeptides
Duodenal enzyme, enterokinase, converts trypsinogen to trypsin
Trypsin, in turn, activates chymotrypsin, elastase, carboxypeptidase, and phospholipase
133. Define endocrinology
is a branch of biology and medicine dealing with the endocrine system, its diseases, and its specific secretions known as hormones. It is also concerned with the integration of developmental events proliferation, growth, and differentiation, and the psychological or behavioral activities of metabolism, growth and development, tissue function, sleep,digestion,
respiration, excretion, mood, stress, lactation, movement, reproduction, and sensory perception caused by hormones
134. Mention the importance of endocrine system
- The endocrine system, like the nervous system, adjusts and correlates the activities of the various body systems, making them appropriate to the changing demands of the external and internal environment.
- Endocrine integration is brought about by chemical signals secreted by ductless glands and transported in the circulation to target cells.
- The hormones regulate metabolic processes.
- The term metabolism, literally meaning change, is used to refer to all the chemical and energy transformations that occur in the body.
- The animal organism oxidizes carbohydrates, proteins, and fats, producing principally CO2, H2O, and the energy necessary for life processes. CO2, H2O, and energy are also produced when food is burned outside the body.
- In the body, oxidation is not a one-step, semiexplosive reaction but a complex, slow, stepwise process called catabolism, which liberates energy in small, usable amounts. Energy can be stored in the body in the form of special energy-rich phosphate compounds and in the form of proteins, fats, and complex carbohydrates synthesized from simpler molecules.
135. Mention 2 Functions of hypothalamus
- Thermoregulation
- Control pituitary functions
136. Mention 2 parts of pituitary gland
-posterior pituitary
- anterior pituitary gland
137. Mention hormones produced by the anterior pituitary gland
-FSH,LH,prolactin,ACTH,growth hormone.
138. Mention hormones produced by the posterior Pituitary gland
-ADH and oxytocin
139. Mention function of FSH and LH
FSH
- Stimulates structure within the ovaries, primary follicle, to grow toward maturity.
- Each follicle contains a developing egg cell (ovum), which is released from the ovary during ovulation.
- FSH stimulate the follicle to synthesize and secrete estrogen (female sex hormones Oestrogen and Progesterone) in the male, FSH stimulates the development of the seminiferous tubules of the testes and maintains spermatogenesis (sperm production) by them.
Luteinizing Hormone (LH)
• Stimulates the formation and activity of the corpus luteum of the ovary.
• The corpus luteum (meaning yellow body) is the tissue left behind when a follicle ruptures to release its egg during ovulation.
• The corpus luteum secretes progesterone and estrogeus when stimulated by LH.
140. Mention function of growth hormone
- It stimulates growth and division of most body cells especially that of bones and skeletal muscles.
- It also regulates metabolism in many organs example, stimulates protein synthesis and break down of fats.
- Stimulate growth by stimulating the liver to produce certain growth factors, which in turn accelerate amino acid transport into cells.
141. Mention function of ADH
The main effect of ADH is to regulate fluid balance in the body by reducing the urine output, for instance during thirsty, hypotension and when there is high plasma osmolarity and during stress.
142. Mention function of ACTH
- This increases the concentration of cholesterol and steroids within the adrenal cortex and the output of steroid hormones, especially cortisol.
143. Mention function of oxytocin
- Oxytocin also stimulates contractions of the milk ducts in the breast, which move milk to the nipple (the let-down) in lactating women.
- uterine contractions stimulate the release of oxytocin from the posterior pituitary, which, in turn, increases uterine contractions.
144. Mention function of prolactin
- It initiates milk secretion (lactation).
145. Functions of hormones produced by the thyroid gland
Increase metabolic activities.
146. Functions of hormones produced by the parathyroid gland.
Calcium balance
147. Mention hormones produced by the adrenal gland.
-minerocorticoids
-glucocorticoids
-noraepinephrine
148. Mention functions of adrenaline hormone
-flight and fright
149. Mention functions of aldosterone hormone
-Salt balance
150. Mention functions of cortisol
it functions to increase blood sugar through gluconeogenesis, to suppress the immune system, and to aid in the metabolism of fat, protein, and carbohydrates.[2 It also decreases bone formation.
151. Mention 3 functions of the kidney
- regulating acid-base balance, electrolyte concentrations, extracellular fluid volume, and blood pressure
152. Mention 5 parts of the nephron
Glomerulus, Efferent arteriole, Bowman's capsule, Proximal convoluted tubule, Cortical collecting duct,. Distal convoluted tubule, Loop of Henle,
153. Function of loop of Henle
- the loop of Henle's main function is to create a concentration gradient in the medulla of the kidney.By means of a countercurrent multiplier system, which utilizes electrolyte pumps, the loop of Henle creates an area of high urea concentration deep in the medulla, near the papillary duct in the collecting duct system
154. Mention functions of glomerulus
Ultra filtration
155. Why are protein molecules not filtrated in the glomerulus?
Because of higher molecular weight
156. Briefly Explain filtration process
Filtration is movement of fluids across the filtration membrane into the lumen of Bowman’s capsule as results of pressure difference
The fluid entering the nephron is called the filtrate
The filtrate in the glomerolus is similar to plasma with the exception of plasma protein Filtration takes place through the semi permeable walls of the glomerulus and glomerular capsule
The formation of filtrate depend on a pressure gradient, called the filtration pressure, which forces fluid from the glomerular capillary across the filtration membrane into the lumen of Bowman’s capsule
157. Briefly Explain secretion
Selective reabsorption takes place in the proximal convoluted tubule of the kidney
It is the process by which certain substances that are required by the body (such as glucose, amino acids, vitamins and water) that have been filtered out of the blood during ultrafiltration, are reabsorbed. As only certain substances are reabsorbed, it is known as selective reabsorption
In this way, many useful solutes (primarily glucose and amino acids), salts and water that have passed in the proximal tubule through the Bowman's capsule, return in the circulation
These solutes are reabsorbed isotonically, in that the osmotic potential of the fluid leaving the proximal tubule is the same as that of the initial glomerular filtrate
However, glucose, amino acids, inorganic phosphate, and some other solutes are reabsorbed via secondary active transport through cotransport channels driven by the sodium gradient out of the nephron
158. Briefly explain tubular reabsorption
• As the glomerular filtrate enters the renal tubules, it flows sequentially through the successive parts of the tubule-the proximal tubule, the loop of Henle, the distal tubule, the collecting tubule, and, finally, the collecting duct-before it is excreted as urine
• Along this course, some substances are selectively reabsorbed from the tubules back into the blood, whereas others are secreted from the blood into the tubular lumen
• Eventually, the urine that is formed and all the substances in the urine represent the sum of three basic renal processes-glomerular filtration, tubular reabsorption, and tubular secretion-as follows:
o Some substances are removed from blood through the peritubular capillary network into the distal convoluted tubule or collecting duct, by secretion mechanism
o These substances are Hydrogen ions, creatinine, and drugs
o Substances which are not reabsorbed after glomerular filtration and those secreted into the tubules forms the components of Urine
o For many substances, reabsorption plays a much more important role than does secretion in determining the final urinary excretion rate
Secretion accounts for significant amounts of potassium ions, hydrogen ions, and a few other substances that appear in the urine
159. Define the terms metabolism, catabolism and anabolism
160. Define carbohydrate metabolism
Carbohydrate metabolism denotes the various biochemical processes responsible for the formation, breakdown and interconversion of carbohydrates in livingorganisms.
161. identify types of carbohydrates metabolism
Glycolysis - the oxidation metabolism of glucose molecules to obtain ATP and pyruvate Pyruvate from glycolysis enters the Krebs cycle, also known as the citric acid cycle, in aerobic organisms after moving through pyruvate dehydrogenase complex. Pentose phosphate pathway, which acts in the conversion of hexoses into pentoses and in NADPH regeneration. NADPH is an essential antioxidant in cells which prevents oxidative damage and acts as precursor for production of many biomolecules.
Glycogenesis - the conversion of excess glucose into glycogen as a cellular storage mechanism; this prevents excessive osmotic pressure buildup inside the cell
Glycogenolysis - the breakdown of glycogen into glucose, which provides a glucose supply for glucose-dependent tissues.
Gluconeogenesis - de novo synthesis of glucose molecules from simple organic compounds. Anexample in humans is the conversion of a few amino acids in cellular protein to glucose.
162. why is ATP used in glycolysis process
This reaction consumes ATP, but it acts to keep the glucose concentration low, promoting continuous transport of glucose into the cell through the plasma membrane transporters. In addition, it blocks the glucose from leaking out – the cell lacks transporters for G6P, and free diffusion out of the cell is prevented due to the charged nature of G6P. Glucose may alternatively be formed from the phosphorolysis or hydrolysis of intracellular starch or glycogen.
163. mention hormones produced by the pancreas
insulin,glucagon,somatostatin
164. mention functions of insulin and glucagon
glucose balance
165. mention the cells that produce insulin, glucagon and somatostatin
Alpha cells producing glucagon (20% of total islet cells)
Beta cells producing insulin and amylin (≈70%)
Delta cells producing somatostatin (
166. Define protein metabolism
Protein metabolism denotes the various biochemical processes responsible for the synthesis of proteins and amino acids, and the breakdown of proteins (and other large molecules) by catabolism.
167. Outline the nitrogen cycle
The nitrogen cycle is the biogeochemical cycle by which nitrogen is converted into various chemical forms as it circulates among the atmosphere, terrestrial, and marine ecosystems. The conversion of nitrogen can be carried out through both biological and physical processes. Important processes in the nitrogen cycle include fixation, ammonification, nitrification, and denitrification
168. Describe the basic structure of amino acids
Amino acids are organic compounds containing amine (-NH2) and carboxyl (-COOH) functional groups, along with a side chain (R group) specific to each amino acid.
169. Mention 5 enzymes involved in the digestion of proteins
-rennin, erepsin, pepsin, peptidases, trypsin
170. Mention 5 enzymes involved in the digestion of carbohydrates
-amylase,sucrase,maltase,lactase,isomaltase
- Define transamination
Transamination, a chemical reaction that transfers an amino group to a ketoacid to form new amino acids. This pathway is responsible for the deamination of most amino acids. This is one of the major degradation pathways which convert essential amino acids to nonessential amino acids (amino acids that can be synthesized de novo by the organism).
171. Define deamination
Deamination is the removal of an amino group from a molecule. Enzymes that catalyse this reaction are called deaminases.In the human body, deamination takes place primarily in the liver, however glutamate is also deaminated in the kidneys. In situations of excess protein intake, deamination is used to break down amino acids for energy. The amino group is removed from the amino acid and converted to ammonia.
172. Outline water- soluble vitamins
Vit B and Vit C
173. Outline lipid-soluble vitamins
A,D,E and K
174. Mention roles of vitamin A in human metabolic processes
Vision, maintenance of epithelial tissue, mucous secretion, growth (formation of bones, teeth), reproduction, and immunity
175. Mention roles of vitamin B1 in human metabolic processes
Utilized in carbohydrate/protein metabolism for energy release. Contributes to body’s supply of niacin (another B vitamin) by facilitating in the conversion of tryptophan (an amino acid) to niacin.
176. Mention roles of vitamin B12 in human metabolic processes
Synthesis of the thymine nucleotides of DNA (along with folic acid) and therefore in the synthesis of red blood cells. Metabolism of fatty acids, hence in the formation of myelin (the sheathing around the axons of nerve cells). Carbohydrate metabolism (stabilizes glutathione – a component of enzymes needed in carbohydrate metabolism)
177. Mention roles of vitamin B6 in human metabolic processes
Synthesis and breakdown of amino acids (hence important in protein metabolism). Conversion of glycogen in liver and muscle tissue to glucose (hence maintenance of blood glucose levels). Reaction that produces a heme precursor, necessary for formation of haemoglobin. Conversion of amino acid tryptophan to niacin.
178. Mention roles of vitamin B3 in human metabolic processes
- Utilized in carbohydrate, fat and protein metabolism.
179. Mention roles of folate and folic acid in human metabolic processes
- Metabolism of amino acids (conversion of histidine to glutamic acid). Synthesis of thymine (a distinctive component of DNA) and therefore in the formation of red blood cells
180. Mention roles of vitamin C in human metabolic processes
- Involved in the formation of collagen (major component of connective tissues). Prevents scurvy/enhances wound healing. Enhances absorption of non-haem iron in foods of plant origin (hence important in anaemia prevention). Is an antioxidant (prevents the harmful action of free radicals).
181. Mention roles of vitamin D in human metabolic processes
- Absorption and metabolism of calcium (hence formation of bones, teeth)
182. Mention roles of vitamin E in human metabolic processes
- An antioxidant, reproduction (enhances fertility), and role in haemoglobin synthesis
183. Mention roles of vitamin K in human metabolic processes
- Blood coagulation (takes part in synthesis of clotting factor ‘prothrombin’)
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